{"id":1109,"date":"2017-03-02T06:37:07","date_gmt":"2017-03-02T06:37:07","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.beachminerals.org\/?p=1109"},"modified":"2021-09-23T15:09:10","modified_gmt":"2021-09-23T09:39:10","slug":"privatization-rare-earth-mining-todays-need-india","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/beachmineral.com\/ta\/privatization-rare-earth-mining-todays-need-india\/","title":{"rendered":"Privatization of rare earth mining: Today\u2019s need for India"},"content":{"rendered":"

Privatization of rare earth mining: Today\u2019s need for India<\/strong><\/h1>\n

T. Srinivasagan<\/strong>
\nV.V. Mineral, Thisaiyanvilai, India<\/strong><\/p>\n

ABSTRACT: This paper highlights the importance of Rare Earths Mining in India. Monazite is\u00a0the important ore and source of Rare Earth Elements (REE). The Monazite is abundant in India\u00a0and found along the coast of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Monazite is found\u00a0as placer deposit and deposited along with other associated heavy minerals viz. Ilmenite, Rutile,\u00a0Garnet, Zircon, Leucoxene, Sillimanite etc. Although our country is blessed with more than 10.93\u00a0million tons of Monazite reserves, due to several constraints it is severely under utilized. The\u00a0Monazite Mining\/processing being a government monopoly, due to which REE being imported\u00a0from China. Processing and Production of Monazite by private entities are not allowed in India\u00a0due to co-occurence of prescribed substance Thorium. In view of the REE\u2019s strategic application,\u00a0heavy demand prevails for REE. Hybrid vehicles, Magnets, Rechargeable batteries, Catalytic\u00a0Converters are few of the end uses of REE.<\/p>\n

1. INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n

Rare Earth Elements (REE) are a group of\u00a017 Elements. These elements are moderately\u00a0abundant in the earth\u2019s crust, some even\u00a0more abundant than copper, lead, gold and\u00a0platinum. Some elements are more abundant\u00a0than many other materials, because of their\u00a0geochemical properties, REEs are typically\u00a0dispersed; most of them are not concentrated\u00a0enough to make them easily exploitable economically.\u00a0It was the very scarcity of these\u00a0minerals that led to the term as \u201crare earth\u201d.\u00a0There are 17 rare earth elements; 15 within the\u00a0chemical group called lanthanides, plus yttrium\u00a0and scandium. They are classified into two\u00a0types i) Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE)\u00a0(More Abundant) and ii) Heavy Rare Earth\u00a0Elements (HREE) (Less Abundant).<\/p>\n

\"\"\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Fig. 1. Periodic table showing rare earth elements and rare metals.<\/p>\n

1.1 Light rare earth elements<\/strong><\/span>
\n(a) Lanthanum (La)
\n(b) Cerium (Ce)
\n(c) Praseodymium (Pr)
\n(d) Neodymium (Nd)
\n(e) Promethium (Pm)
\n(f) Samarium (Sm).
\n1.2 Heavy rare earth elements
\n(a) Europium (Eu)
\n(b) Gadolinium (Gd)
\n(c) Terbium (Tb)
\n(d) Dysprosium (Dy)
\n(e) Holmium (Ho)
\n(f) Erbium (Er)
\n(g) Thulium (Tm)
\n(h) Ytterbium (Yb)
\n(i) Lutetium (Lu)<\/p>\n

(j) Yttrium (Y)
\n(k) Scandium (Sc).<\/p>\n

2. ABUNDANCE OF REE\u2019S IN EARTH\u00a0CRUST<\/strong><\/p>\n

Together the lanthanides, Yttrium and Scandium\u00a0are commonly referred to as REE\u2019s,\u00a0although this is a misnomer since most of the\u00a0REE\u2019s are common mineral constituent as\u00a0compared with other metal elements. The term\u00a0\u201crare\u201d is not due to availability, whereas due to\u00a0the metallurgical process needed to isolate the\u00a0individual metal species are complex and early\u00a0technology prevented commodity-level production.<\/p>\n

The abundance of REEs in the earth\u2019s crust\u00a0relative to other common metals is presented in\u00a0Table 1.<\/p>\n

TABLE I. Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
Elements<\/strong><\/td>\nCrustal Abundance (Parts per millions)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Nickel (28<\/sub> Ni)<\/p>\n

Zinc (30<\/sub> Zn)<\/p>\n

Copper (29 <\/sub>Cu)<\/p>\n

Cerium (58<\/sub> Ce)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Lanthanum(57<\/sub>La)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Cobalt (27<\/sub>Co)<\/p>\n

Neodymium(60<\/sub>Nd)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Yttrium (39 <\/sub>Y)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Scandium (21<\/sub>Sc)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Lead (82<\/sub>Pb)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Praseodymium(59<\/sub>Pr)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Thorium (90<\/sub>Th)<\/p>\n

Samarium (62 <\/sub>Sm)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Gadolinium (64<\/sub> Gd)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Dysprosium (66<\/sub> Dy)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Tin ( 50<\/sub><\/strong> Tn)<\/p>\n

Erbium (68 <\/sub>Er)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ytterbium (70<\/sub> Yb)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Europium (63<\/sub> Eu)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Holmium (67<\/sub> Ho)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Terbium (65<\/sub> Tb)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Lutetium (71<\/sub> Lu)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Thulium (69<\/sub> Tm)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Silver (47<\/sub> Ag)<\/p>\n

Gold (79<\/sub> Au)<\/p>\n

Promethium (61<\/sub> Pm)<\/strong><\/td>\n

90<\/p>\n

79<\/p>\n

68<\/p>\n

60<\/strong><\/p>\n

30<\/strong><\/p>\n

30<\/p>\n

27.0<\/strong><\/p>\n

24.0<\/strong><\/p>\n

16.0<\/strong><\/p>\n

10<\/strong><\/p>\n

6.7<\/strong><\/p>\n

6<\/p>\n

5.3<\/strong><\/p>\n

4.0<\/strong><\/p>\n

3.8<\/strong><\/p>\n

2.2<\/p>\n

2.1<\/strong><\/p>\n

2.0<\/strong><\/p>\n

1.3<\/strong><\/p>\n

0.8<\/strong><\/p>\n

0.7<\/strong><\/p>\n

0.4<\/strong><\/p>\n

0.3<\/strong><\/p>\n

0.08<\/p>\n

0.0031<\/p>\n

10-18<\/sup><\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

* REE – Lanthanides, Scandium and\u00a0Yttrium is presented in bold face type.<\/p>\n

The major minerals of RE of commercial\u00a0importance are presented in Table 2.<\/p>\n

TABLE II.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Minerals<\/strong><\/td>\nChemical Formula<\/strong><\/td>\nCountries of Origin<\/strong><\/td>\nAppx REO%<\/strong><\/td>\nRemarks<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Bastnaesite<\/td>\n(Ce, La)<\/p>\n

FCO3<\/sub><\/td>\n

USA, China & Australia<\/td>\n75%<\/td>\nProcessing relatively simpler,\u00a0 more content of Europium.<\/p>\n

In China associated with Iron ore mining<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

Monazite<\/td>\n(Ce, La, Th&U) PCO4<\/sub><\/td>\nIndia, Australia, Malaysia, Brazil, Thailand & Korea<\/td>\n65%<\/td>\nAvailable in beach placer deposit. RE content more or less uniform. Contains Th&U which are radioactive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Xenotime<\/td>\nYPO4<\/sub><\/td>\nMalaysia, China & India<\/td>\n60%<\/td>\nYttrium major constituent. In Malaysia associated with Tin Mining<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Gadolinite<\/td>\n(Ce, La, Nd,Y) Fe Be2<\/sub> Si2<\/sub> O10<\/sub><\/td>\nUSA<\/td>\n60%<\/td>\nSource of Yttrium. Recovered as by-product from Bastnaesite.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Ion Exchange Clay<\/td>\nWeathered Apatite & Xenotime ore concentrated<\/td>\nChina<\/td>\n–<\/td>\nUnique deposits found only in southern China. Though less content of RE easier to concentrate. Rich source of Y, Eu, Tb & Dy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Apatite<\/td>\nCa5<\/sub> (PO4<\/sub>)3\u00a0 <\/sub>(F, Cl, OH)<\/td>\nCIS, South Africa<\/td>\n19%<\/td>\nOccurs in Copper, Tin, Phosphate Mining<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Loparite<\/td>\n(Ce, La, Na, Ca, Sr) (Ti, Nb)O3<\/sub><\/td>\nCIS<\/td>\n30%<\/td>\nContents above 40% Titania<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

I. \u00a0 \u00a0History of REE<\/span><\/h1>\n

From the 1960s until the 1980s, the United States was the world leader in REO productions. In fact, in 1984, the Mountain Pass Mine in California supplied 100 percent of US Demand and 33 percent of the world\u2019s demand for rare earth. In the late 1970’s, China started increasing Production of REEs, and as illustrated in Figure 3.1, rapidly because the world\u2019s dominant producer. Active mining Operations at Mountain Pass Mine were suspended in 2002. As REE production in the US has declined, China has become the world\u2019s leading producer of REE\u2019s and is currently responsible for more than 95 percent Global Production.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

I. Major End Uses And Applications of REE<\/strong><\/p>\n

Currently the dominant end uses of Rare Earth Elements in the United States are for Automobile Catalysts and Petroleum Refining Catalysts, Use in Phosphors in Color Television and Flat Panel Displays (Cell phones, Portable DVDs and Laptops), Permanent Magnets and Rechargeable Batteries for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles and Numerous Medical Devices (See Table III). There are important Defense applications such as Jet Fighter Engines, Missile Guidance Systems, Antimissile Defense and Satellite and Communication Systems. Permanent Magnets containing Neodymium, Gadolinium, Dysprosium and Terbium (Nd Fe B magnets) are used in Numerous Electrical and Electronic components and New Generation Generators for Wind Turbines. About 75% of the Nd Fe B Permanent Magnet Production is concentrated in China. Another 22% is produced in Japan.<\/p>\n

TABLE III. Rare Earth Elements \u2013 End Uses<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Sl. no.<\/strong><\/td>\nREE<\/strong><\/td>\nSymbol<\/strong><\/td>\nEnd Uses<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
1<\/td>\nScandium<\/td>\nSc<\/td>\nLight aluminium-scandium alloys for aerospace components, additive in metal-handle lamps and mercury-vapor lamps, [4]<\/sup>radioactive tracing agent in oil refineries.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
2<\/td>\nYttrium<\/td>\nY<\/td>\nYttrium Aluminium Garnet (YAG) laser, yttrium vanadate (YVO4<\/sub>) as host europium in TV red phosphor, YBCO high-temperature superconductors, yttria-stabilized Zirconia (YSZ), yttrium iron garnet (YIG) microwave filters, energy-efficient light bulbs, spark plugs, gas mantles, additive to steel.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
3<\/td>\nLanthanum<\/td>\nLa<\/td>\nHigh refractive index and alkali-resistant glass, flint, hydrogen storage, battery-electrodes, camera lenses, fluid catalytic cracking catalyst for oil refineries.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
4<\/td>\nCerium<\/td>\nCe<\/td>\nChemical oxidizing agent, polishing powder, yellow colors in glass and ceramics, catalyst for self-cleaning ovens, fluid catalytic cracking catalyst for oil refineries, ferrocerium flints for lighters.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
5<\/td>\nPraseodymium<\/td>\nPr<\/td>\nRare earth magnets, lasers, core material for carbon arc lighting, colorant in glasses and enamels, additive in didymiumglass used in welding goggles \u00a0<\/sup>ferrocerium Firesteel (flint) products.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
6<\/td>\nNeodymium<\/td>\nNd<\/td>\nRare-earth magnets, lasers, violet colors in glass and ceramics, didymium glass, ceramic capacitors.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
7<\/td>\nPromethium<\/td>\nPm<\/td>\nNuclear batteries, luminous paint.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
8<\/td>\nSamarium<\/td>\nSm<\/td>\nRare-earth magnets, lasers, neutron capture, masers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
9<\/td>\nEuropium<\/td>\nEu<\/td>\nRed and Blue phosphors, lasers, mercury-vapor lamps, fluorescent lamps, NMR relaxation agent.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
10<\/td>\nGadolinium<\/td>\nGd<\/td>\nRare-earth magnets, <\/strong>high refractive index glass or granites, lasers, x-ray tubes, computer memories, neutron capture, MRI contrast agent, NMR relaxation agent, magnetostrictive alloys such as Terfenol-D.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
11<\/td>\nTerbium<\/td>\nTb<\/td>\nGreen phosphors, lasers, fluorescent lamps, magnetostrictive alloys such as Terfenol-D<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
12<\/td>\nDysprosium<\/td>\nDy<\/td>\nRare-earth magnets, lasers, magnetostrictive alloys such as Terfenol-D<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
13<\/td>\nHolmium<\/td>\nHo<\/td>\nLasers, wavelength calibration standards for optical spectrophotometers, magnets<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
14<\/td>\nErbium<\/td>\nEr<\/td>\nInfrared lasers, vanadium steel, fiber-optic technology<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
15<\/td>\nThulium<\/td>\nTm<\/td>\nPortable X-ray machines, metal-halide lamps, lasers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
16<\/td>\nYtterbium<\/td>\nYb<\/td>\nInfrared lasers, chemical reducing agent, decoy flares, stainless steel, stress gauges, nuclear medicine<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
17<\/td>\nLutetium<\/td>\nLu<\/td>\nPositron emission tomography \u2013 PET scan detectors, high-refractive-index glass, lutetium tantalate hosts for phosphors.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

II. Demand for Rare Earth Elements<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

The world demand for REE was estimated at 1,36,100 tons in 2010, with global production around 1,33,600 tpa.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

III.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Rare Earth \u2013 World Reserves, Production & Consumption – 2015<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n

TABLE IV. Country-wise Reserves, Production & Demand<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
Country<\/strong><\/td>\nReserves(tons) (with % of total)<\/strong><\/td>\nProduction (tpa)(with % of total)<\/strong><\/td>\nGlobal RE Demand (2010)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
China<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Brazil<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Australia<\/p>\n

India<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

United States<\/p>\n

Malaysia<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Thailand<\/p>\n

Others, including Russia<\/td>\n

550,00,000 (43.6%)<\/p>\n

220,00,000 (17%)<\/p>\n

32,00,000 (2.5%)<\/p>\n

31,00,000 (2.5%)<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

18,00,000<\/p>\n

(1.4%)<\/p>\n

30,000 (0.025%)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

NA<\/p>\n

410,00,000 (32.5%)<\/p>\n

 <\/td>\n

1,05,000 (86.6%)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

10,000 (8.2%)<\/p>\n

0<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

4,100 (3.4%)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

200 (0.2%)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

2,000 (1.6%)<\/p>\n

NA<\/td>\n

China<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Japan<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Europe<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

US<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Rest of Asia<\/td>\n

54%<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

24%<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

10%<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

8%<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

4%<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

Total<\/strong><\/td>\n1261,30,000<\/strong><\/td>\n1,21,300<\/strong><\/td>\n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Source \u2013 USGS 2016<\/p>\n

From the above it is evident that the countries, Brazil and India are having surplus REE reserves they are not keen to produce any REE.<\/p>\n

Following are the reasons for US to control their REE production<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Higher cost operations<\/li>\n
  2. Environmental restrictions.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Following is the turn of events in the monazite sector during the last 107 years in India.<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Heavy mineral deposits of Manavalakuruchi in the state of Travancore (now Tamilnadu) were discovered by Schomberg, a German Scientist in 1909 which was proved richer and economical compared to rest of the world. Initially, the raw material itself was exported to other countries and later Mineral Separation Plants were set up and produced Ilmenite and Monazite were exported. After independence, the export of Monazite was restricted and hence a Processing Plant for Monazite was set up by M\/s. Indian Rare Earths Ltd (IREL), PSU to produce Thorium Nitrate for Gas mantles and Rare Earths. Monazite contains 65% Rare Earths Oxides along with 9-10% thorium and 0.35% uranium.<\/li>\n
    2. In 1965, all the closed down Mineral Separation Plants were acquired by IREL. Till 1998, the Beach Sand Mineral(BSM) mining operations other than Garnet and Sillimanite was with the Public Sector only.<\/li>\n
    3. In 1998, Mining and Separation of all beach sand minerals other than Monazite were opened up to private sector in India by DAE.<\/li>\n
    4. In 2002, Monazite processing was stopped by IREL due to Thorium storage bottlenecks and high production costs of REE by IREL.<\/li>\n
    5. Mining policy, Environmental policy and Land Acquisition Bill of India are the bottlenecks for PSU regarding REE production.<\/li>\n
    6. The present AMCR by Government of India aims at exploitation of the entire suite of beach sand minerals on the utility of thorium alone, which will have a negative impact on other beach sand minerals and also on titanium, zirconium and rare earth productions in India.<\/li>\n
    7. Environmental restriction for handling and storing associated Thorium compounds.<\/li>\n
    8. As per IAEA documents none of the countries in the world, other than India are planning for thorium based reactor.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      \u00a0IV.\u00a0REE Mines in operation<\/span><\/h1>\n

      A.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Bastnaesite :<\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
      1. China – Baiyan Obo & Sichman<\/li>\n
      2. USA – Mt. Pass<\/li>\n
      3. Vietnam \u2013 Dong Pao<\/li>\n
      4. Australia \u2013 Dubbo Trachyte<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        B.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Monazite:<\/span><\/h2>\n
          \n
        1. China –\u00a0 Guangdong<\/li>\n
        2. Australia – Mount weld<\/li>\n
        3. India –\u00a0 IREL<\/li>\n
        4. Malawi –\u00a0 Kangankunde<\/li>\n
        5. SA –\u00a0\u00a0 Zand kopsdrift, Steenkampskaal<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          C.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Xenotime:<\/span><\/h2>\n
            \n
          1. Brazil –\u00a0 Ptinga<\/li>\n
          2. Malaysia \u2013 Lahat Perak<\/li>\n
          3. China –\u00a0 Guangdong<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            D.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Apatite:<\/span><\/h2>\n
              \n
            1. China –\u00a0 Nangang, Gangdong<\/li>\n
            2. Australia \u2013 Nolaus Bore<\/li>\n
            3. Canada – Hoidas Lake<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              E.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Eudialyte:<\/span><\/h2>\n
                \n
              1. Canada –\u00a0 Zeus<\/li>\n
              2. Greenland –\u00a0 Steenstrupine<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                F.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Loparite:<\/span><\/h2>\n
                  \n
                1. Russia –\u00a0 Lovozersky<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  G.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Fergusonite:<\/span><\/h2>\n
                    \n
                  1. Canada –<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                    V. Properties and Chemical Composition of the Mineral Monazite<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
                    Composition<\/strong><\/td>\n%<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    REEs as Re2<\/sub> O3<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    P2<\/sub>O5<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    ThO2<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    CaO<\/p>\n

                    S1<\/sub>O2<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    MgO<\/p>\n

                    U3<\/sub>O8<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    Fe2 <\/sub>O3<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    Al2 <\/sub>O3<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    PbO<\/p>\n

                    TiO2<\/sub><\/p>\n

                    ZrO2<\/sub><\/td>\n

                    		59.37<\/p>\n

                    27.03<\/p>\n

                    8.88<\/p>\n

                    1.24<\/p>\n

                    1.0<\/p>\n

                    0.63<\/p>\n

                    0.35<\/p>\n

                    0.32<\/p>\n

                    0.12<\/p>\n

                    0.18<\/p>\n

                    0.36<\/p>\n

                    0.49<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                      \n
                    1. Honey Yellow to Golden yellow. Also pale yellow<\/li>\n
                    2. Specific Gravity \u2013 4.6 \u2013 5.47<\/li>\n
                    3. Crystal –\u00a0 Monoclinic<\/li>\n
                    4. Hardness –\u00a0 5 to 5.5 on Moh’s scale<\/li>\n
                    5. Bulk Density – 3200 kg\/m3<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                      \u00a0VI.\u00a0\u00a0 Conclusions<\/strong><\/p>\n

                      Based on the study, it is inferred that now is the suitable time for India to go for Private Sector Participation in Monazite Production and Processing considering the Rare Earths Market in the World, which is dominated by China.<\/p>\n

                      A.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Radiological Safety in Processing of Monazite:<\/strong><\/p>\n

                      The radiological safety aspect to be covered in the processing of Monazite is very simple, when it is compared with operation of Nuclear Reactors. Due to the lesser composition (in PPM level) of radioactive elements in Monazite, the radiological safety standards can be easily achieved by the Private entities and the same can be regulated by the existing radiological safety regulatory authority viz. AERB. Appointment of Exclusive Radiological Safety Officer (RSO) deputed from DAE\/AERB would make the system safer.<\/p>\n

                      Already Private entities who are all involved in the processing of BSM facility are holding a valid license under Atomic Energy Radiation Protection Rule, 2004.<\/p>\n

                      B.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Stacking and Handling of Thorium rich concentrate:<\/strong><\/p>\n

                      The present scale of Mining of Beach Sand Minerals (BSM) by private entity is about 10 lakh tpa. During the Process about 50 tons Thorium concentrate is expected. The system is very simple and with a few laid down procedures, stacking and handling Thorium concentrate can be easily achieved with the aid of the regulatory authority AERB.<\/p>\n

                      C.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Change in policy<\/strong><\/p>\n

                      Heavy mineral deposits of Manavalakuruchi in the state of Travancore (now Tamilnadu) were discovered by Schomberg, a German Scientist in 1909 which was proved richer and economical compared to rest of the world. Interestingly, Mineral sands then mined from rich seasonal Beach washings for only one mineral, i.e. Monazite, which produce incandescence by infusing the paraffin mantle in a solution of thorium and cerium compounds, lost its worth due to arrival of filament lamp. During 1947, Indian first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru exercised control (not banned, but restrictions)<\/strong> over the export of Monazite and Thorium Nitrate. However, in 1995 DAE issued a gazette notification, listing prescribed substances, including Monazite, that are subject to export licensing by the DAE.<\/p>\n

                      Here it is important to mention that in 1947, India exercised control over export of Monazite \u201cnot merely a financial matter, it has international implication\u201d.<\/p>\n

                      The mineral Monazite is utilized for only commercial purpose only and not for any strategic purpose. Also, as per IAEA documents, about the national nuclear programs of different countries, does not give any indication that any country, is planning significant use of thorium either in the reactors currently under operation as also in the near future.<\/p>\n

                      Thus, it is the right time for DAE to allow Private entities to Produce and Process Monazite mineral for meeting the increased demand for Rare Earths in the world with stipulations regarding safety and misuse of Thorium and Uranium.<\/p>\n

                      The additional REE available by opening up will pave way for the development of downstream industries in India using REEs as the raw material which will have additional financial as well as strategic implications.<\/p>\n

                      References<\/p>\n

                        \n
                      • US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016.<\/li>\n
                      • Latest Scenario in Rare Earth and Atomic Minerals in India, Dr. R. N. Patra, CMD, Indian Rare Earths Ltd.<\/li>\n
                      • Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Production, Processing, Recycling and Associated Environmental Issues, 2012, Engineering Technical Support Centre, Cincinnati, OH.<\/li>\n
                      • Rare Earth Elements: The Global Supply chain, 2013, Marc Humphries.<\/li>\n
                      • India’s Rare Earths Industry \u2013 A case of Missed Opportunities, S.Chandrasekar& Lalitha Sundaresan.<\/li>\n
                      • The Process of Mining REEs and other Strategic Elements.<\/li>\n
                      • Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths, Nagaiyar Krishnamurthy and Chiranjib Kumar Gupta<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n